Neurophysiological process - Circadian rhythm

Circadian rhythm

Circadian rhythms are 24-h oscillations in behavior and physiology, which are internally generated and function to anticipate the environmental changes associated with the solar day. In mammals, the circadian system is organized in a hierarchical manner, in which a master pacemaker in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) regulates downstream oscillators in peripheral tissues [1]. The clock mechanism in the SCN consists of a network of transcriptional-translational feedback loops that drive rhythmic 24-h expression patterns of core clock components. The positive feedback loop includes the key circadian rhythm regulators Clock homolog (CLOCK) and Aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator-like (BMAL1) [2], [3]. BMAL1 forms heterodimers with CLOCK and Neuronal PAS domain protein 2 (NPAS2) and drives transcription of Period homologs 1, 2, 3 (PER1, PER2, PER3) and Cryptochromes 1 and 2 (CRY1, CRY2) [4], [5], [6]. Negative feedback is achieved by PER:CRY heterodimers that translocate from the cytoplasm to the nucleus to repress their own transcription by acting on the CLOCK:BMAL1 complex [1], [7], [8].

The 24-h molecular clock is governed by post-translational modifications of the key "clock" genes. Casein kinase I delta and Casein kinase I epsilon phosphorylate PER1, PER2, PER3 in the cytoplasm and promote PER1, PER2 and PER3 proteosomal degradation [9], [10], [11]. CRY1 and CRY2 are also phosphorylated by Casein kinase I epsilon [12]. In addition, Casein kinase I epsilon phosphorylates BMAL1 and stimulates its transcriptional activity [12].

Another regulatory loop is induced by CLOCK:BMAL1 heterodimers activating transcription of Nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group D, member 1 (REV-ERB alpha) and RAR-related orphan receptor A (ROR-alpha). REV-ERB alpha and ROR-alpha bind the same elements (ROREs) present in the BMAL1 promoter. ROR-alpha activates transcription of BMAL1, whereas REV-ERB alpha represses the transcription process [1], [13], [14], [15].

Basic helix-loop-helix family, members e40 and e41 (DEC1 (Stra13), DEC2) are another set of circadian rhythm regulators expressed in the suprachiasmic nucleus in a circadian fashion, with a peak in the subjective day. BMAL1 induces DEC1 (Stra13) expression, and DEC1 (Stra13) and DEC2 repress CLOCK: BMAL1-induced transactivation of the PER1 promoter [16], [17].

Expression of the main "clock" genes is mainly regulated by light and changes in metabolic state. Photic entrainment promotes release of L-Glutamic acid and Adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide 1 (PACAP) from the rethinohypothalamic tract. L-Glutamic acid binds to the Glutamate receptor, ionotropic, N-methyl D-aspartate 1 (NMDA receptor) and stimulates Ca('2+) influx in neurons. Elevated Ca('2+) levels promote Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMK II) activation via Calmodulin 2 (Calmodulin). CaMK II phosphorylates cAMP responsive element binding protein 1 (CREB1), which induces PER1 and PER2 transcription [4], [18], [19], [20], [21]. In addition, CAMK II activates the V-raf-1 murine leukemia viral oncogene homolog 1 (c-Raf-1)/ mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases 1, 2 (MEK1(MAP2K1), MEK2(MAP2K2))/ mitogen-activated protein kinases 1-3 (ERK1/2) pathway [22], [23]. ERK1/2 activation leads to CREB1 phosphorylation, most likely via Ribosomal protein S6 kinase, 90kDa (p90Rsk) [24], [25], [26]. In addition, L-Glutamic acid -induced Ca('2+) increase promotes Nitric oxide synthase 1 (nNOS) activation via Calmodulin binding or probably via CAMK II phosphorylation of nNOS [27], [28]. Released NO activates Guanylate cyclase 1, soluble, which promotes Cyclic GMP production. Cyclic GMP activates Protein kinase, cGMP-dependent, type II (Protein kinase G 2), which phosphorylates CLOCK, thus promoting PER1 expression [29], [30], [31], [32]. Light-induced PACAP signaling also leads to CREB1 phosphorylation and PER1 transcription [33], [34], [35]. NO also activates RAS, dexamethasone-induced 1 (Dexras1). Dexras1 in turn activates ERK1/2 through an unknown mechanism [36], [37].

Changes in metabolic states also regulate the circadian machine. Changes in the ratio of NAD('+) and NADH alter the binding affinity of both CLOCK:BMAL1 and NPAS2:BMAL1 to their DNA recognition sites. The reduced form NADH strongly enhances DNA binding of the CLOCK:BMAL1 and NPAS2:BMAL1 heterodimers, whereas the oxidized form NAD('+) -inhibits binding [38]. In addition, NPAS:BMAL1 heterodimers regulate transcription of Lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA), which catalyzes conversion of Pyruvic acid into (S)-Lactic acid with consumption of NADH and release of NAD('+). Thus, cofactors could be part of a feedback mechanism controlling the molecular clock [5].

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