Role of 14-3-3 proteins in cell cycle
regulation
The 14-3-3s are a family of highly conserved proteins
that play important roles in a wide range of cellular processes including signal
transduction, apoptosis, cell cycle progression, and checkpoint activation within all
eukaryotic cells. These 28-33 kDa helical proteins include nine isotypes
(14-3-3 alpha, 14-3-3 beta,
14-3-3 gamma, 14-3-3 delta,
14-3-3 epsilon, 14-3-3 eta,
14-3-3 sigma, 14-3-3 tau and
14-3-3 zeta, with 14-3-3 alpha
and 14-3-3 delta being phosphorylated forms of
14-3-3 beta and 14-3-3 zeta,
respectively) in mammals.
14-3-3 proteins regulate the cell cycle and prevent
apoptosis by controlling the nuclear and cytoplasmic distribution of signaling molecules
with which they interact. 14-3-3 proteins have crucial
functions during undisturbed cell divisions and several mechanisms involving
14-3-3-ligand association ensure that mitosis is not
prematurely activated before the completion of DNA replication in interphase [1].
14-3-3 proteins regulate the cell cycle via cell cycle
checkpoint kinase 1
(Chk1) [2], and by phosphorylation of cell division cycle 25 phosphatases
(CDC25s) [3], [4],
tyrosine kinase Wee1 [5], [6],
tumor suppressor p53 [7] and cyclin-dependent
kinase 1 (CDK1) [8].
CDC25s are a main target for
14-3-3-regulation. CDC25s
activate CDKs by dephosphorylation, thus stimulating cell
cycle progression. Different
CDC25s participate in different
phases of cell cycle. CDC25A takes part in regulation of
G1/S transition, whereas CDC25B and CDC25C
regulate G2/M transition. Lack of active
CDC25s results in the accumulation of the phosphorylated
(inactive) forms of CDKs, which are incapable to participate
in initiation of replication [9].
CDC25s may be phosphorylated via ataxia telangiectasia
mutated serine-protein kinase
(ATM)/ Chks
and ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3 related
protein kinase
(ATR)/ Chk1
pathways. Chk1 is activated by 14-3-3
zeta/delta with help of the checkpoint
protein HUS1 [2]. In addition,
mitogen-activated protein kinase p38 / mitogen-activated
protein kinase-activated protein kinase 2 (MAPKAPK2) pathway
[10] and mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 7
(TAK1) [11] may participate in
phosphorylation of CDC25B and
CDC25C, as well.
Various isotypes of 14-3-3 proteins inhibit
phosphorylated CDC25s, which probably results in the
retention of CDC25s in the cytoplasm [4] and/or
the blocked access of CDKs to the catalytic site of
CDC25s [3]. Once mitosis is activated,
cytoplasmic sequestration of CDC25C by
14-3-3 proteins is inhibited by a
CDK1-mediated phosphorylation [12].
In addition, CDK1 is regulated by
14-3-3 proteins directly (by 14-3-3 sigma
[8]) or via Wee1.
Active Wee1 inhibits Cdk1 by
Tyr15 phosphorylation. Wee1 may be activated by
14-3-3 alpha/beta [13] and 14-3-3
delta/zeta [6] isotypes. On the other hand,
Wee1 phosphorylated
by protein kinase B
(AKT) on Ser-642
may be retained in the cytoplasm by 14-3-3 eta [5].
It was shown that some isotypes of 14-3-3 proteins (14-3-3
gamma, 14-3-3 tau, 14-3-3
epsilon [7] and 14-3-3 sigma
[14]) may activates p53. Ionizing
radiation-induced dephosphorylation of p53 on Ser-376 is
necessary for this process [7].
References:
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14-3-3 transits to the nucleus and participates in dynamic nucleocytoplasmic transport.
The Journal of cell biology 2002 Mar 4;156(5):817-28
- Jiang K, Pereira E, Maxfield M, Russell B, Goudelock DM, Sanchez Y
Regulation of Chk1 includes chromatin association and 14-3-3 binding following phosphorylation on Ser-345.
The Journal of biological chemistry 2003 Jul 4;278(27):25207-17
- Forrest A, Gabrielli B
Cdc25B activity is regulated by 14-3-3.
Oncogene 2001 Jul 19;20(32):4393-401
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14-3-3 family members act coordinately to regulate mitotic progression.
Cell cycle (Georgetown, Tex.) 2004 May;3(5):672-7
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Akt/protein kinase B-dependent phosphorylation and inactivation of WEE1Hu promote cell cycle progression at G2/M transition.
Molecular and cellular biology 2005 Jul;25(13):5725-37
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14-3-3 binding regulates catalytic activity of human Wee1 kinase.
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The G2/M regulator 14-3-3sigma prevents apoptosis through sequestration of Bax.
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MAPKAP kinase-2 is a cell cycle checkpoint kinase that regulates the G2/M transition and S phase progression in response to UV irradiation.
Molecular cell 2005 Jan 7;17(1):37-48
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C-TAK1 protein kinase phosphorylates human Cdc25C on serine 216 and promotes 14-3-3 protein binding.
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Dual phosphorylation controls Cdc25 phosphatases and mitotic entry.
Nature cell biology 2003 Jun;5(6):545-51
- Wang Y, Jacobs C, Hook KE, Duan H, Booher RN, Sun Y
Binding of 14-3-3beta to the carboxyl terminus of Wee1 increases Wee1 stability, kinase activity, and G2-M cell population.
Cell growth & differentiation : the molecular biology journal of the American Association for Cancer Research 2000 Apr;11(4):211-9
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14-3-3 proteins--an update.
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