Hedgehog signaling
The Hedgehog (HH) family of proteins control cell growth, survival, and fate, and
pattern almost every aspect of the vertebrate body plan [1], [2], [3]. Sonic hedgehog homolog (SHH)
activation requires several steps: autocleavage, Cholesterol
binding, palmitoylation by Hedgehog acyltransferase (HHAT)
[2], [4], [5], [6]. Activated
SHH is transported by binding to Dispatched homolog 1
(DISP1) into extracellular region [7]. Growth
arrest-specific 1 (GAS1) [8], Boc homolog
(BOC), Cdon homolog (CDON)
[9], [10] bind to
SHH and activate HH signaling. Ribosomal protein L29
(HIP) binds to SHH, Indian
hedgehog homolog (IHH), Desert hedgehog homolog
(DHH) and inhibits HH signaling pathway [11].
SHH, IHH,
DHH are members of HH family, which induce HH signaling
pathway activation by binding to Patched homolog 1 (PTHC1)
[3], [12], [13]. Ligand-induced
inhibition of PTCH1 leads to activation of Smoothened
homolog (Smoothened) [14].
Smoothened function depends on intraflaggelar transport
proteins Arrestin, beta 1 and 2 (Beta-arrestin1 and 2),
Kinesin family member 3A (KIF3A), which bind to and activate
Smoothened [15]. Adrenergic, beta, receptor
kinase 1 (GRK2) phosphorylates
Smoothened and induces it activation [16], [17]. Under SHH activation
Smoothened can induce
Ubiquitin-dependent degradation of Suppressor of fused
homolog (SUFU), main regulator of HH signaling pathway
[18], [19], [20]. Inhibition of
SUFU leads to activation of GLI family zinc finger 3 and 2
(GLI-3 and GLI-2)
transcriptional activity [1], [21].
GLI-2 and GLI-3 promote
transcription of GLI family zinc finger 1 (GLI-1) [22], [23]. GLI-1 activates target genes,
involved in regulation of HH signaling: PTCH1,
HIP [24]. Activated
GLI-2 and GLI-3 can be
ubiquitinated by Cul3/SPOP/Rbx1 E3 ligase and then undergo
26S proteasome (20S core)-dependent
degradation [25], [26].
SHH-activated Smoothened
binds to Kinesin family member 27 (KIF27) and promotes
activation of Serine/threonine kinase 36, fused homolog (STK36)
[1], [27], [28]. Cell division cycle
37 homolog (CDC37) in cooperation with Heat shock protein
90kDa (HSP90) binds to and induces STK36
[27]. STK36 activates
GLI-2, GLI-1 and inhibits
SUFU [29].
SHH -induced Smoothened
activates Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 10
(MLK2(MAP3K10)) activity [13].
MLK2(MAP3K10) inhibits Dual-specificity
tyrosine-(Y)-phosphorylation regulated kinase 2 (DYRK2)
[30], [31]. DYRK2 phosphorylation of
GLI-2, GLI-3 induces
degradation of transcription factors [21], [30].
In absence of HH ligand Protein kinase, cAMP dependent, catalytic
(PKA-cat (cAMP-dependent)) phosphorylates
GLI-3 [32] and induces several consecutive
processes: SUFU binds to GLI-3
and promotes GLI-3 phosphorylation by Glycogen synthase
kinase 3 beta (GSK3 beta) [33],
Casein kinase I phosphorylates GLI-3 [34], Beta-transducin repeat containing (beta-TrCP) in
complex with Cullin 1 binds to phosphorylated
GLI-3 and promotes
Ubiquitin-dependent processing of
GLI-3 by 26S proteasome (20S core)
into GLI family zinc finger 3, repressor form (GLI-3R)
[26], [35]. GLI-3R
acts as co-repressor of transcription: GLI-3R and
SUFU bind to Catenin (cadherin-associated protein), beta 1,
88kDa (Beta-catenin) and inhibit it function [36], [37], [38].
On the other hand in absence of ligand PKA-cat
(cAMP-dependent), GSK3 beta,
Casein kinase I phosphorylate
GLI-2 and induce Cul1/Rbx1 E3
ligase-dependent 26S proteasome (20S core)
degradation of GLI-2 [13], [39], [40]. Degradation of GLI-1 in absence of HH
signal is promoted by Numb homolog (NUMB) [41].
NUMB binds to GLI-1 and induce
Itchy E3 ubiquitin protein ligase homolog (Itch)-dependent
proteasome degradation of GLI-1.
SUFU binds to and inhibits
GLI-1, GLI-2 and
GLI-3 activity [19], [25].
SUFU also recruits SIN3 homolog A, transcription regulator
(Sin3A)/Histone deacetylase (HDAC)
complex through interaction with
Sin3A-associated protein, 18kDa (SAP18) to
repress GLI-1 and enhance
GLI-3R activity [42], [43].
Cyclin-dependent kinase 11B (CDK11) binds to and inhibits
SUFU thereby activating
Hedgehog signaling [44].
SHH inhibits PTCH1-induced
inhibition of Cyclin B1, results in activation of cell
proliferation [45].
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